Predicting Severity of Acute Pain After Cesarean Delivery: A Narrative Review

Cesarean delivery is one of the most common surgical procedures in the United States, with over 1.3 million performed annually. One-fifth of women who undergo cesarean delivery will experience severe pain in the acute postoperative period, increasing their risk of developing chronic pain and postpartum depression, and negatively impacting breastfeeding and newborn care. A growing body of research has investigated tools to predict which patients will experience more severe pain and have increased analgesic consumption after cesarean delivery. These include quantitative sensory testing, assessment of wound hyperalgesia, response to local anesthetic infiltration, and preoperative psychometric evaluations such as validated psychological questionnaires and simple screening tools. For this review, we searched MEDLINE, the Cochrane database, and Google Scholar to identify articles that evaluated the utility of various tools to predict severe pain and/or opioid consumption in the first 48 hours after cesarean delivery. Thirteen articles were included in the final review: 5 utilizing quantitative sensory testing, including patient responses to pressure, electrical, and thermal stimuli; 1 utilizing hyperalgesia testing; 1 using response to local anesthetic wound infiltration; 4 utilizing preoperative psychometric evaluations including the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Pain Catastrophizing Scale, the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and simple questionnaires; and 2 utilizing a combination of quantitative sensory tests and psychometric evaluations. A number of modalities demonstrated statistically significant correlations with pain outcomes after cesarean delivery, but most correlations were weak to modest, and many modalities might not be clinically feasible. Response to local anesthetic infiltration and a tool using 3 simple questions enquiring about anxiety and anticipated pain and analgesic needs show potential for clinical use, but further studies are needed to evaluate the utility of these predictive tests in clinical practice.

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A Pain in the Abs: Predicting Post-Cesarean Analgesia

No abstract available

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Physiology and Role of Intraocular Pressure in Contemporary Anesthesia

More than 26 million Americans suffer with cataracts, and with 3.6 million cataract extractions performed annually in the United States, it is the most common surgical procedure. The integrity of the delicate structures of the eye that mediate vision is dependent on the intraocular pressure (IOP). Yet, IOP acts to compress the vessels within the globe—akin to a Starling resistor—and is a key component that determines the ocular perfusion pressure, defined as the difference between arterial pressure and IOP. The retina is one of the most metabolically active tissues in the body, and its functional integrity is dependent on an adequate blood supply, with retinal function linearly related to the ocular perfusion pressure. Retinal cell death has been demonstrated at low perfusion pressures (below 50 mm Hg). Modern ophthalmic surgery involves globe irrigation, manipulation, and instrumentation, resulting in dynamic pressure fluxes within the eye. Marked elevations of IOP (up to 4–5 times the normal value) with consequent borderline retinal and optic disk perfusion pressures occur for prolonged periods during many ophthalmic procedures. General surgeries, including laparoscopic, spinal, and cardiac procedures, especially, with their demand for steep Trendelenburg or prolonged prone positioning and/or hypotensive anesthesia, can induce IOP changes and ocular perfusion imbalance. These rapid fluctuations in IOP, and so in perfusion, play a role in the pathogenesis of the visual field defects and associated ocular morbidity that frequently complicate otherwise uneventful surgeries. The exact etiology of such outcomes is multifactorial, but ocular hypoperfusion plays a significant and frequently avoidable role. Those with preexisting compromised ocular blood flow are especially vulnerable to intraoperative ischemia, including those with hypertension, diabetes, atherosclerosis, or glaucoma. However, overly aggressive management of arterial pressure and IOP may not be possible given a patient's comorbidity status, and it potentially exposes the patient to risk of catastrophic choroidal hemorrhage. Anesthetic management significantly influences the pressure changes in the eye throughout the perioperative period. Strategies to safeguard retinal perfusion, reduce the ischemic risk, and minimize the potential for expulsive bleeding must be central to the anesthetic techniques selected. This review outlines: important physiological principles; ophthalmic and general procedures most likely to develop damaging IOP levels and their causative factors; the effect of anesthetic agents and techniques on IOP; recent scientific evidence highlighting the significance of perfusion changes during surgery; and key aspects of postoperative visual loss and management approaches for high-risk patients presenting for surgery.

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The Eyes Have It: Factors that Influence Intraocular Pressure (IOP)

No abstract available

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Patient Harm in Cataract Surgery: A Series of Adverse Events in Massachusetts

Massachusetts state agencies received reports of 37 adverse events (AEs) involving cataract surgery from 2011 to 2015. Fifteen were anesthesia related, including 5 wrong eye blocks, 3 cases of hemodynamic instability, 2 retrobulbar hematoma/hemorrhages, and 5 globe perforations resulting in permanent loss of vision. While Massachusetts' reported AEs likely underrepresent the true number of AEs that occur during cataract surgery, they do offer useful signal data to indicate the types of patient harm occurring during these procedures.

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Preventing Adverse Events in Cataract Surgery: Recommendations From a Massachusetts Expert Panel

Massachusetts health care facilities reported a series of cataract surgery–related adverse events (AEs) to the state in recent years, including 5 globe perforations during eye blocks performed by 1 anesthesiologist in a single day. The Betsy Lehman Center for Patient Safety, a nonregulatory Massachusetts state agency, responded by convening an expert panel of frontline providers, patient safety experts, and patients to recommend strategies for mitigating patient harm during cataract surgery. The purpose of this article is to identify contributing factors to the cataract surgery AEs reported in Massachusetts and present the panel's recommended strategies to prevent them. Data from state-mandated serious reportable event reports were supplemented by online surveys of Massachusetts cataract surgery providers and semistructured interviews with key stakeholders and frontline staff. The panel identified 2 principal categories of contributing factors to the state's cataract surgery–related AEs: systems failures and choice of anesthesia technique. Systems failures included inadequate safety protocols (48.7% of contributing factors), communication challenges (18.4%), insufficient provider training (17.1%), and lack of standardization (15.8%). Choice of anesthesia technique involved the increased relative risk of needle-based eye blocks. The panel's surveys of Massachusetts cataract surgery providers show wide variation in anesthesia practices. While 45.5% of surgeons and 69.6% of facilities reported increased use of topical anesthesia compared to 10 years earlier, needle-based blocks were still used in 47.0% of cataract surgeries performed by surgeon respondents and 40.9% of those performed at respondent facilities. Using a modified Delphi approach, the panel recommended several strategies to prevent AEs during cataract surgery, including performing a distinct time-out with at least 2 care-team members before block administration; implementing standardized, facility-wide safety protocols, including a uniform site-marking policy; strengthening the credentialing and orientation of new, contracted and locum tenens anesthesia staff; ensuring adequate and documented training in block administration for any provider who is new to a facility, including at least 10 supervised blocks before practicing independently; using the least invasive form of anesthesia appropriate to the patient; and finally, adjusting anesthesia practices, including preferred techniques, as evidence-based best practices evolve. Future research should focus on evaluating the impact of these recommendations on patient outcomes.

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Forgetting the new locations of one’s keys: spatial-memory interference in Korsakoff’s amnesia

Abstract

The present study focused on interference in a group of patients with amnesia due to Korsakoff's syndrome (KS) within the domain of spatial memory. An object–location memory task was used in which participants first learned an array of objects on a computer screen, followed by a reconstruction of the object positions. Next a trial was given in which the same objects were presented only now in different locations. Participants had to place the objects a second time but at the new locations. This was repeated for seven pairs of baseline/interference trials. Both Korsakoff patients and matched controls did worse on the interference trials than on the baseline trials, indicating that it is difficult to relearn new spatial locations for objects that previously were remembered in other locations. When computing relative interference effects (that is the percentage change from baseline in the interference trials), Korsakoff patients were less affected than controls. It is discussed in how far interference depends on the strength of the original memories, which are markedly lower in KS patients.

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